Invasions and Impact/Hindu Temples under Mughal Pressure

From Ruin to Revival Hindu Temples Under Mughal Pressure

The Mughal Empire and Hindu temples have a long and complicated history. The era has witnessed a cycle of destruction and reconstruction, sometimes culminating in legal and social controversies that continue to influence modern India. The initial Mughal rulers, such as Akbar had shown tolerance and even patronage for the places of worship, but during the reign of Shah Jahan and Emperor Aurangzeb, there was a marked change in policy towards the destruction of temples. The destruction of Hindu temples during the Mughal period was more a result of political intentions than a policy of destruction, and it resulted in profound changes to Hindu society.

The campaign, formally launched by Aurangzeb through a decree on April 9, 1669, aimed at large Hindu religious centers, such as the Kashi Vishwanath temple in Varanasi and the Keshavdev temple in Mathura, which were destroyed and replaced by mosques.¹

Historical texts, such as Maasir-i-Alamgiri, ascribe these acts to religious fervour, while contemporary interpretations, especially those of Richard M. Eaton, emphasise the additional political agendas that may have driven these attacks, as temples were sometimes destroyed as a means of suppressing rebellions and demonstrating imperial power over rival chieftains. The destruction of the temple at Orchha in 1635, following a local uprising against Shah Jahan, is one such instance. As Mughal power declined in the 18th century, a strong Hindu revival movement emerged, showing remarkable cultural resilience. The Maratha coalition was at the forefront, providing the stability and funding necessary for a pan-Indian revival of sacred sites.

As Mughal power declined in the 18th century, a strong Hindu revival movement emerged, showing remarkable cultural resilience. The Maratha coalition was at the forefront, providing the stability and funding necessary for a pan-Indian revival of sacred sites. The most notable example in this respect is Queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore (1767-1795), who not only funded and oversaw the reconstruction of many sacred sites across the subcontinent, including the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi and the Somnath Temple in Gujarat, but also dozens of other temples, ghats, and pilgrim facilities. Her reconstruction of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in 1780, more than a century after its destruction by Emperor Aurangzeb, helped to re-establish the religious heart of Varanasi and its pilgrimage geography; she also built and renovated important riverfront ghats like Ahilya Ghat and Manikarnika Ghat, which not only facilitated religious worship but also the infrastructure of pilgrimage and community rituals along the banks of the Ganges.²

These restoration efforts, supported by royal grants, land endowments (Inam), and public donations, not only restored the physical infrastructure but also rekindled the pilgrimage routes and reinforced Hindu cultural identity. The impact of this historical cycle continues to be felt, with the Gyanvapi mosque in Varanasi and the Shahi Eidgah in Mathura and Babri Masjid in Ayodhya being at the heart of ongoing litigation. These contemporary conflicts are influenced by colonial-era laws and post-colonial legal regimes, particularly the Places of Worship Act of 1991, with the latest archaeological discoveries by the ASI being critical to the litigation.

These restorations, funded through royal grants, land endowments (Inam), and community support, not only rebuilt physical structures but also revitalised pilgrimage circuits and reaffirmed Hindu cultural identity. The legacy of this historical cycle endures, with sites like the Gyanvapi mosque in Varanasi and the Shahi Eidgah in Mathura and Babri Masjid in Ayodhya at the center of legal battles. These modern disputes are shaped by colonial-era regulations and post-colonial legal frameworks, most notably the Places of Worship Act of 1991, with recent archaeological findings by the ASI playing a pivotal role in court proceedings.

Historical Overview of Mughal Temple Policies

Before Aurangzeb became emperor, the Mughal emperors had very different views about Hindu temples. Some were tolerant and supported them, while others destroyed them selectively. The time of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605) is often remembered for its religious diversity. He took care of temples in his area and worked with Hindu groups. His successor, Jahangir (1605–1627), kept this trend going by giving money to people, like in 1618 when he allowed the building of the grand Keshav Rai temple in Mathura. There are many positive and negative things about Shah Jahan's rule from 1628 to 1658.

Aurangzeb’s 1669 Farman

The policy landscape shifted dramatically under Emperor Aurangzeb (1658–1707). He issued a general farman (decree) to the governors of all provinces with explicit orders to "demolish the schools and temples of the infidels and to put down their teaching and religious practices." This imperial command is meticulously documented in the official court chronicle, Maasir-i-Alamgiri, by Saqi Mustaid Khan, which portrays the emperor as being driven by an "eagerness to establish Islam." 3

As reported in Akhbarat, he ordered the immediate destruction of a stone railing when he came to know that it was presented to the Dehra of Keshav Rai temple in Mathura by Dara Shukoh calling this act by Shukoh ‘uncreditable to the Muhammadans’ as ‘even looking at a temple is a sin for the Muslims.⁴

The Vishwanath temple in Kashi was torn down in September 1669.⁵   They tore down the grand Keshavdev temple in Mathura and buried its idols under the steps of a mosque in Agra. The campaign spread to other areas, such as Gujarat, Malwa, and Maharashtra. It often happened at the same time as military campaigns and putting down rebellions.⁶ 

Motives Behind Destruction - Sacred Rhetoric Veiled Political Strategy

One school of historical thought, which is very dependent on Persian chronicles, is that Aurangzeb's policies were based on religious bigotry. The Maasir-i-Alamgiri explicitly states that the emperor's policies were to spread Islam and function as a "destroyer of infidelity and turbulence".⁸ Jadunath Sarkar and other historians agree with this assessment, that the 1669 decree was the central component of an ideologically motivated assault on Hinduism. The text's use of language to celebrate the destruction of "infidel" schools and temples is very strong evidence that the assault was religious in nature.

Political Statecraft Thesis of Eaton, Truschke Links Demolitions to Rebellion Suppression

One of the most influential arguments comes from Richard M. Eaton, who argues that temple desecration was a political act and not a religious one.⁹ He argues that the royal temples were a symbol of sovereignty, and their destruction was a common Indian political practice of discrediting a defeated or rebellious king. This argument about temple destruction was a political practice and not a religious one implies that temple desecration was not a widespread practice but was associated with state formation and the suppression of rebellion. The royal temples were not only religious institutions but also symbols of a king's sovereignty. By destroying a temple patronized by a rebellious chieftain, the Mughal state could politically delegitimize their rule.¹⁰  According to the Holy Law (shari`at) and the exalted creed, it has been established that ancient temples should not be torn down.” On this point, Aurangzeb aligned himself with the theory and the practice of Indo-Muslim ruling precedent. But then he added, “nor should new temples be built” – a view that broke decisively from Akbar’s policy of permitting his Rajput officers to build their own temple complexes in Mughal territory. (Eaton, R. M. Temple desecration in India, p.2)

This theory is supported by the timing of key demolitions:

Kashi Vishwanath Temple (1669): Its destruction is linked to a rebellion by local landholders suspected of helping Aurangzeb's arch-enemy, Shivaji, escape from imperial detention. 11

Keshavdev Temple, Mathura (1670): This demolition followed a series of Jat rebellions in the region.

Temples in Rajasthan (1679-80): Widespread destruction occurred during the Rajput War to punish chieftains who had withdrawn their loyalty to the Mughal state.

This thesis, however, is not universally accepted. Critics argue that Eaton's dataset is incomplete and selectively omits cases that don't fit the political model, such as Aurangzeb's repeated orders to destroy the Somnath temple, which was not associated with any active rebellion at the time.¹²

Other scholars offer different interpretations. Audrey Truschke in “Aurangzeb: The man and the Myth” also identifies political reasons, but argues that the main intention of Aurangzeb’s policy was one of legal safeguarding for non-Muslims, and that destruction was an exceptional punishment for sedition. … “divisive” notions of jihad and jizya, or holy war and poll tax respectively, were of less significance than the concepts of akhlaq and adab, or political conduct and ethical conduct respectively.

On the other hand, some critics have argued that a purely political explanation is not adequate and that religious ideology, particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb, was an important factor, as evidenced by his general orders for the destruction of temples.

The different reasons for the destruction of temples are apparent in major historical instances.

Temple at Orchcha: Shah Jahan destroyed the temple as a form of punishment for rebellion. The patron of the temple, Raja Jajhar Singh Bundela, was in outright rebellion against the Mughal government. The temple was destroyed by the Mughals as a political statement to curtail the power of the rebellious ruler.¹³

Kashi Vishwanath Temple: Aurangzeb established his control by issuing a farman and is associated by historians with punishing local zamindars or collusion in Shivaji's escape. The Gyanvapi Mosque was erected on the site, incorporating the southern wall and foundation of the temple, a definitive assertion of Mughal control over a central Hindu religious site.¹⁴

Keshav Dev, Mathura: The destruction came after a rebellion by the Jats in the area, as a direct punishment to the rebels.The Shahi Eidgah Mosque was constructed on the temple's plinth. Idols were reportedly buried under a mosque in Agra, and Mathura was temporarily renamed Islamabad.¹⁵

Somnath, Gujarat: Aurangzeb ordered its destruction twice. Unlike other cases, this was not clearly tied to a specific rebellion, suggesting a stronger ideological motive to suppress idol worship at a historically symbolic site. The temple was left in ruins and the site desecrated. It was later rebuilt on an adjacent site by Ahilyabai Holkar in the 18th century.

Important Demolitions Under Aurangzeb (1669-1705) ¹⁶

The campaign initiated by Aurangzeb was geographically widespread, with a significant concentration of destruction in the Hindu heartlands of North India and in regions of political rebellion like Rajasthan.

Temple Name	Location	Year of Destruction
Vishvanath Temple	Kashi (Varanasi)	1669
Keshava Deva Temple	Mathura	1670
Somnath Temple	Gujarat	Early in reign & 1706
Temples in Khandela	Khandela, Rajasthan	1679
Temples in Jodhpur	Jodhpur, Rajasthan	1679
Temples on Udaisagar Lake	Udaipur, Rajasthan	1680
172 temples around Udaipur	Udaipur, Rajasthan	1680
63 temples in Chitor	Chitor, Rajasthan	1680
66 temples in Amber	Amber, Rajasthan	1680
Temple of Someshwar	Western Mewar, Rajasthan	1680
Bijamandal Temple	Vidisha, MP	Late 17th century
Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple	Nashik, Maharashtra	1690
Temple of Pandharpur	Pandharpur, Maharashtra	1705
Temple of Chintaman	Saraslipur, Gujarat	1645 (as Prince)

Rajput War Flashpoints - Udaipur, Chitor, Amber

The Rajput War (1679-80) against the states of Mewar and Marwar triggered a particularly intense phase of temple destruction. Aurangzeb used these acts as a tool to punish and demoralize the rebellious Rajput rulers.¹⁷

While a complete count is impossible, historical chronicles and records document a widespread and systematic campaign. During the Rajput War of 1679-80 alone, vast numbers of temples were destroyed in Rajasthan to punish rebellious chieftains. Reports from this period indicate the destruction of 172 temples in the Udaipur region, 63 in Chitor, and 66 in Amber. Other major demolitions include the Somnath temple in Gujarat, Bijamandal in Vidisha, and some in Maharashtra at Trimbakeswar and Pandharpur. More recent archaeological excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) have borne out these ancient accounts in many cases, discovering pre-existing Hindu temple structures underneath mosques from this period at such important sites as Gyanvapi in Varanasi.

Disruption Of Pilgrimage Circuits And Religious Festivals

The destruction of the grand temples caused economic and religious tremors in Hindu society. The demolition of important pilgrimage sites like the Kashi Vishwanath and Keshav Dev temples disrupted the religious networks and sacred landscapes.

Beyond the spiritual trauma, the economic consequences were severe where economies of temple towns built around pilgrimage. The livelihoods of priests, artisans, vendors, and hospitality providers were directly tied to the influx of devotees. Mughal administrative policies impaired this disruption. Shah Jahan's revival of the pilgrim tax placed a direct financial burden on those undertaking religious journeys, even though it was sometimes remitted. ¹⁸

Bans on Hindu Festivals

Mughal policy also targeted public displays of faith. Aurangzeb's administration issued orders banning the public celebration of major Hindu festivals like Holi and Diwali in certain regions. These restrictions suppressed communal religious expression and disrupted the ritual calendars that structured social life. While worship continued, it was often forced into private or more subdued forms, altering the public and collective nature of Hindu religious practice. Despite these pressures, resilience was evident. Pilgrims continued to visit the site of the destroyed Vishwanath temple, adapting their rituals to the altered space.

Cultural Patronage Reconfigured

Temples were the primary engines of cultural patronage, supporting a wide ecosystem of artists, musicians, dancers, and scholars through endowments and ritual functions. The destruction of these institutions, coupled with Aurangzeb's turn towards austerity at the imperial court, led not to a cultural void but to a significant decentralization of patronage. ¹⁹

As imperial support for arts like music waned in Delhi, many court musicians and artists migrated to seek new patrons.²⁰ They found welcome homes in the rising regional courts of the Rajputs, Marathas, and other local rulers who were eager to establish their own cultural prestige. This diaspora of talent carried the high traditions of the Mughal court across the subcontinent, from Lucknow and Hyderabad in the north to Thanjavur in the south.

Dance and Painting

The Nathdwara school of paintings, which was based on the worship of Shrinathji, developed a style of its own, with the patronage provided by the kings of the state of Mewar. The Raas Lila (dance-drama) religio-cultural tradition of Vrindavan continued to thrive, showing how arts and culture were not averse to change. ²¹

References

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2. Bhakkad, M. (2025). Ahilyabai Holkar’s role in temple restoration and cultural preservation: A study of 18th century Hindu renaissance. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/399366363_Ahilyabai_Holkar's_Role_in_Temple_Restoration_and_Cultural_Preservation_A_Study_of_18th_Century_Hindu_Renaissance
3. Kandi, S. (Ed.).  Maasir-I-Alamgiri, 1658–1707 (p. 63). .
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15. Tirthayatra.org.  ASI confirms Aurangzeb demolished Sri Krishna temple in Mathura. https://www.tirthayatra.org/breaking-news-asi-confirms-aurangzeb-demolished-sri-krishna-temple-in-mathura/
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19. Sangeet Galaxy.  The role of Bhakti saints in music during the Mughal period. https://sangeetgalaxy.co.in/paper/the-role-of-bhakti-saints-in-music-during-the-mughal-period/
20. Mercatus Center.  Schofield, K. Hidden history of music in Mughal India. https://www.mercatus.org/ideasofindia/katherine-schofield-hidden-history-music-mughal-india
21. Vrindavan Darshan.  The enchanting history of Vrindavan: A journey through time. http://vrindavandarshan.in/the-enchanting-history-of-vrindavan-a-journey-through-time/