Bhakti and Yogic Networks Beyond Mughal and Colonial Rule

Bhakti And Yogic Networks Under Mughal And Colonial Rule

Devotion as a defence or the way in which the bhakti and yogic networks out- lasted Mughal and colonial rule by providing strong spiritual, social, and cultural frameworks that kept native identities alive and brought people together in the face of outside pressures.

Indian communities responded to Mughal and colonial invasions through diverse strategies rooted in the spiritual traditions of Bhakti and Yoga (Burchett, 2012, p. 373)^. These movements were not merely simple coping mechanisms and the driving forces behind the establishment of community strength, preserving cultural identity, providing social welfare, and mounting both non-violent and armed resistance (Burchett, 2012, p. 321). In the Mughal era there was a complex relationship that emerged, with emperors like Akbar providing extensive patronage that allowed Bhakti institutions to flourish as centers of culture and amalgamation, while the more orthodox policies of rulers like Aurangzeb led to a resistant attitude towards the martial ascetic orders such as the Naga Sadhus. Under British colonial rule, this pattern shifted towards more organised armed resistance, most notably in the Faqir–Sannyasi Rebellion, which emerged in response to severe economic exploitation, recurrent famines, and colonial intrusion into religious life. (Bhattacherjee, n.d.)

Throughout both periods, the Bhakti practice of satsang provided crucial social safety nets, offering charity, shelter, and a sense of collective identity (Burchett, 2012, p. 329). The use of vernacular languages by Bhakti poets and saints helped popularise spirituality and make their culture more resilient. During the 19th and 20th centuries, these traditions were reinterpreted by various reform movements, like the Ramakrishna Mission and the Aligarh Movement, which adapted concepts of selfless service (seva) and “upliftment” from within their philosophical frameworks to deal with colonial modernisation and contribute to the growing nationalist movement. Ultimately, Bhakti and Yoga established a comprehensive framework that empowered Indian communities to endure, adapt, and actively confront centuries of foreign rule.

Mughal to Colonial Era (1526–1947) - Key Transitions and Policy Shifts

The period that started with the founding of the Mughal Empire in 1526 till the end of British rule in 1947 was characterized by a paradigm shift in policies pursued by the state in matters pertaining to religious groups. Aurangzeb's turn toward orthodoxy provoked armed ascetic uprisings, and the economically exploitative activities of the British East India Company's aggressive economic exploitation after 1757 triggered widespread rebellion.

A Conceptual Framework for Vernacular Bhakti Literatures

The Bhakti Movement was a strong catalyst in preserving the cultural identity through a vernacular literary tradition. This has been achieved through compositions of devotional literature works by literary saints Kabir, Mirabai, and Tulsi, which have made religious knowledge generally accessible and have created strong cultural ties. Community rituals like 'satsang' (spiritual fellowship) and 'bhajan/kirtan' (devotional singing) built strong social bonds and a shared sense of belonging. Sufis similarly used local languages and artistic forms like 'qawwali' to create a syncretic spiritual identity that blended Islamic mysticism with indigenous culture (Gill & Rana, 2025).

Organised martial ascetic orders provided physical protection. Various 'akharas' functioned as military units (Clark, 2018). The 'Astradhari' (weapon-bearing) Naga Sadhus in the Dashanami Sampradaya were powerful warrior monks who shielded and safeguarded the Hindu settlements and places of worship. They functioned as mercenaries and path protectors for Hindu pilgrims. They were actively involved in the security of settlements.

Political Resistance Transition from Non-Violent Satsang Movements to Armed Uprisings

Devotional groups mobilised for both violent and non-violent political resistance. The most prominent example is the Faqir-Sanyasi Rebellion, where Hindu Sannyasis and Muslim Faqirs waged a prolonged guerrilla war against the British East India Company (Banglapedia n.d.). This was fuelled by harsh revenue policies and restrictions on their movements. The Satnami rebellion against Emperor Aurangzeb is another example of armed resistance by a religious community.

The Mughal period saw a shift from the relatively flexible and supportive policies and ideals brought about under Akbar to the more stringent and religion-channelling orders introduced under Aurangzeb, which resulted in the destruction of the temples.

Akbar’s Patronage and the Temple-Building Boom

Under Emperor Akbar, a policy of 'Sulh-i Kul' (universal peace) created a fertile ground for religious amalgamation. (Khan, 2010, p. 226). This policy was reportedly influenced by the universalist philosophies of Bhakti saints like Kabir. Akbar's alliances with Rajput rulers, who were patrons of Bhakti sects, led to extensive imperial support for religious institutions. The Mughal court made major land endowments ('jagirs') to at least seven Vaishnava temples in the Braj region (Vrindavan) and revered Sufi shrines like the Dargah of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer.¹⁰ This patronage permitted Bhakti and Sufi communities to thrive, creating some of the richest vernacular literature and establishing centres of crucial social welfare and inter-communal dialogue. Intellectual intercourse was vibrant with yogic texts were translated into Persian, and there was frequent contact between the Nath Yogis and the Sufi mystics (Dey, n.d.).

The Bhakti movement saw an unprecedented growth during the reign of Akbar, largely facilitated by imperial patronage (Burchett, 2012). Akbar's 'Sulh-e-kul' policy provided a fertile ground for syncretic ideas, resonating with the Nirgun Bhakti concept of universal Gods. By 1580, at least seven temples in Braj region received jagir grants from the Mughals which enabled the movement to build its strong institutional base. Productive collaborations were the means wherein the movements gained resources and security, while the state benefited from social cohesion fostered by Bhakti's inclusive message.

Period of Jahangir and Shah Jahan

During the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, intellectual pursuits continued, in which Jahangir held dialogues with Vaishnava sect leaders and decided that Hindu Vedantai ideas were virtually the same (Shukla, n.d., p. 92). Nevertheless, this period also witnessed the increased advent of more conservative Sufi orders in India, such as the Naqshbandi Sufi order. Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi pushed for a return to stricter forms of Muslim law and reacted to Emperor Akbar's more tolerant policies and religious practices that combined elements from different religions (Alam, n.d.).

Repression Under Aurangzeb

The rule of Emperor Aurangzeb is marked with a noticeable tide of repression as a result of Naqshandi orthodoxy. He destroyed a number of temples, including the Kesava Deo Mandir at Mathura in 1670.This event led to vigorous resistance, such as the Satnami rebellion of 1672. Militant ascetic orders ('akharas') like the Dashanami Naga Sadhus engaged in battles to defend sacred sites like the Kashi Viswanath temple. However, Aurangzeb's policies were complex. He also issued 'farmans' (royal decrees) protecting older, existing temples and authorized Ramanandi commanders and their armies to move without hindrance, showcasing a contradictory approach to managing his diverse empire (Clark, M. n.d.).

Vernacular Literature and Idol Relocations as Survival Tools

The political climate shifted dramatically under Aurangzeb. His orthodox policies led to increased hostility, including orders for temple destruction. This forced Bhakti communities to adopt strategies of adaptation and protection. ‘Known for his hostility to Mughal rule, Jagat Singh was a natural proponent of bhakti revivalism and a welcome recipient of the economic and cultural benefits of the devotional movement. The possibility of multiplying religious, economic and social control in an environment where Hindu autonomy had been fiercely maintained for centuries must certainly have been attractive.’ Richardson, E. A. Mughal and Rajput patronage of the bhakti sect of the Maharajas, the Vallabha Sampradaya (Richardson, n.d.).

The most famous example of this defensive strategy was the protection of the Shri Nath Ji idol of the Vallabha Sampradaya. To save it from destruction, the idol was moved from Goverdhan in 1672 to the protection of the court of Mewar, a state known for its hostility to Mughal rule. This act led to the establishment of Nathdwara as a new, protected center for the sect. During the colonial era, the vast body of vernacular devotional literature, poetry, and music produced during the Bhakti period served as a powerful cultural defence, fostering a shared Indian heritage and a sense of national pride that became a spiritual foundation for the independence movement.

From Economic Pressure to Faith-Driven Resistance under Colonial Rule

Fiscal extraction, not missionary zeal, turned devotional orders into insurgent networks. The British East India Company's policies created severe economic distress that directly fueled armed resistance, transforming ascetic and mendicant groups into organised rebels.

The primary driver of resistance was the company's economic exploitation. After acquiring the 'diwani' (revenue collection rights) of Bengal in 1764, the British replaced produce-based revenue with a harsh, fixed, cash-based tax system. (Bhattacherjee, U. n.d.). This impoverished the peasantry and was severely worsened by the Bengal Famine of 1770, which was intensified by British policies and killed an estimated one to ten million people. The company's refusal to reduce taxes during the famine intensified public anger.

Faqir-Sannyasi Rebellion

This economic pressure, combined with new pilgrim taxes and restrictions on the movement of ascetics, directly fuelled the Faqir-Sannyasi Rebellion (1763–1800). The alliance between Hindu sannyasies, or holy men, and Muslim faqirs fought a long guerrilla war against the Company.

The Sepoy Mutiny in 1857 witnessed mass involvement in the uprising by ascetic and devotional groups. The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II himself a Sufi saint, became a symbolic leader. The Naga sadhus supported Indian rulers like Peshwa Nanasaheb and the Rani of Jhansi (Kumar, n.d.). However, allegiances were complex; some groups, like the Dadupanthis, acted as auxiliaries for the forces of the East India Company.

The British viewed organized ascetic groups with suspicion. They issued decrees banning the collection of alms by groups like the fakirs and sannyasis, which they considered extortion. After the 1857 Revolt, the British systematically suppressed the military and banking activities of Sannyasi groups, curtailing their long-standing power.

Mechanisms that Scaled - Akhara, Langar, and Satsang

Low-cost and high-trust rituals and institutions enabled devotional networks to institutionalise welfare, identity, and recruitment much more effectively than the government’s efforts. These became the backbone of a community that is resilient to any sort of adversity.

Akhara (Yoga/Asceticism): These were martial organisations, at times with a yoga tradition, that provided spiritual and martial training (Kumar, n.d.). Armed Naga sadhus acted as a protective force for Hindu communities and shrines, engaging in battles against Mughal and other forces (Fukey Education (2025). They also emerged as powerful economic and political entities.

Satsang, Bhajan/Kirtan (Bhakti): This spiritual fellowship and group chant of bhajans or kirtan through vernacular languages made moral ideas understandable to all and made complex spiritual ideas accessible to all, regardless of caste or literacy. These practices created powerful bonds of shared devotion and cultural identity that maintained community morale (Kumar, n.d.).

Langar (Sikhism): This community kitchen, which served all people, including guests, for free, went directly against the norms of caste hierarchies and institutionalised the principles of equality and selfless service. It provided a crucial social safety net during famines and fostered strong communal solidarity.

Reform Movements of 19th-20th-Century Service as the New Sword

Missions and madrasas reframed devotion into modern institutions for education and healthcare, seeding the political identities that would shape the subcontinent. As direct martial resistance became untenable under the British Raj, these movements transformed spiritual capital into social and political power.

Ramakrishna Mission

Founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897, the Ramakrishna Mission reinterpreted Vedanta and Yoga into a philosophy of 'Karma Yoga' (selfless service). It established a vast, well-organised network of humanitarian institutions, including schools, hospitals, and poverty alleviation projects, setting a new pattern for social services under a monastic order (Ramakrishna Mission, 1893). The movement explicitly rejected the caste system, promoted female education, and gained global recognition for promoting tolerance and non-violence.

Sikh Singh Sabha Literacy Gains

The movement, which began in Punjab in the 1870s, was a Sikh revivalist movement aimed at restoring Sikhism to its 'pristine purity' in reaction to the proselytising activities of other faiths. It focused on reviving Sikh teachings, combating illiteracy, and producing literature in the Punjabi Gurmukhi script to establish a distinct Sikh identity. It established Khalsa schools and colleges and was instrumental in the revitalisation of Sikhism, laying the groundwork for the late Akali movement.

Satya Shodhak Samaj

Founded by Jyotiba Phule on September 24, 1873, the Satya Shodhak Samaj ('Truth-seekers' Society') was a pioneering movement for caste and gender equality. Its primary aim was to liberate lower castes and women from the oppression of the Brahmanical caste system. Its key vehicles were educational institutions; Phule and his wife, Savitribai Phule, founded the first school for girls in India in 1848 and opened several other schools for lower-caste children, laying the ideological foundation for future Dalit movements.

Celebratory narratives of a pan-Indian, egalitarian "Bhakti movement" often mask caste exclusions, sectarian violence, and colonial-constructed categories. Scholars like Patton E. Burchett argue this narrative is a modern construction that occludes the deep historical relationships between Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga, and, crucially, Islam and Sufism (Menon, P. (2025),

While saints like Kabir and Ravidas radically opposed the caste system, some scholars like Max Weber argued that Saguna Bhakti may have primarily benefited the upper castes (Paul & Singh, 2023).  Some Vaishnava traditions, despite promoting spiritual equality, supported the caste system and Brahminical dominance.

As armed resistance became untenable, the defence pivoted on intellectual and institutional fronts. The Arya Samaj, for instance, filled this vacuum by establishing a vast network of Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) schools, which grew to over 900 institutions. This shift demonstrates that when we neutralise one defensive modality, we find resilience by directing resources towards the development of intellectual infrastructure.

Global Rebranding

Facing colonial stereotypes that dismissed Indian traditions as "superstition", some movements adopted a strategy of global cultural defence. Swami Vivekananda's representation of Hindu philosophy at the 1893 World's Parliament of Religions reframed it as a universal, philosophical, and dynamic faith, countering missionary critiques on a world stage. ²⁶.This was followed by the establishment of the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897, which demonstrated the practical power of Hindu philosophy through 'seva' (selfless service) via a global network of schools, hospitals, and relief organisations. This combination of international storytelling and visible social work created a powerful soft-power shield, disarming external criticism and building a positive global image for Indian traditions.

As colonial criticism intensified, two movements pioneered a defence strategy based on cultural reframing: the Ramakrishna Movement, which projected Hindu philosophy onto the world stage, and the modern yoga revival, which presented an ancient practice in scientific terms.

Vivekananda & Ramakrishna Mission’s “Service as Sermon” Model

Led by Swami Vivekananda, the Ramakrishna Movement mounted a powerful cultural defence by combining spiritual universalism with practical social service. At the 1893 World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago, Vivekananda presented Hindu philosophy not as a dogmatic creed but as a universal mother of religions, famously calling for "Help and not fight", "Assimilation and not Destruction", and "Harmony and Peace and not Dissension" (Ramakrishna Mission, 1893). This speech countered colonial and missionary stereotypes and fostered a renewed sense of national pride.

This philosophical defence was backed by institutional action. The Ramakrishna Mission, founded by Vivekananda in 1897, established a vast network of hospitals, charitable dispensaries, schools, and relief organisations. This model of 'seva' (selfless service) demonstrated the practical and ethical power of Vedanta philosophy, providing a spiritual and intellectual foundation for the Indian freedom movement.

Yoga’s Scientific Rebranding

Traditional Hatha Yoga faced severe suppression under the British, who banned yogic gatherings and dismissed the practice as unscientific superstition, forcing it to retreat into secret lineages and rural communities (Ramakrishna Mission, 1893). The revival in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was a strategic act of cultural resistance. Figures like Swami Kuvalayananda pioneered a new approach by subjecting yoga to scientific scrutiny. He founded the Kaivalyadhama Institute in 1924 to conduct physiological and clinical research on yoga's effects. By publishing research and presenting yoga in the empirical language of science, the revivalists made the practice palatable to a modern, rationalist mindset. This scientific rebranding helped restore yoga's legitimacy, turning it into a tool for restoring Indian self-confidence and a symbol of national pride within the broader nationalist movement (Sarvanga, n.d.).

Sustained Legacy and Contemporary Resonance

The most tangible legacy of these movements is the creation of extensive and enduring institutions. The Arya Samaj's (DAV) network of schools and colleges became a prominent educational force, while the Ramakrishna Mission grew into a global humanitarian organisation with its hospitals and clinics. On the legal front, rationalist movements like the Brahmo and Prarthana Samaj were instrumental in advocating for crucial social legislation, including the abolition of Sati and the passage of acts enabling widow remarriage. These efforts successfully fostered cultural resilience and national pride, with Swami Vivekananda's global representation of Hindu philosophy and the revival of yoga and Vedic traditions contributing to a renewed self-confidence that fuelled the nationalist struggle.

The institutional and cultural frameworks established centuries ago persist and thrive. The Faqir-Sannyasi Rebellion was immortalised in the novel “Anandamath” by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, and its song "Vande Mataram" became an anthem for the independence movement. Reform movements of the 19th and 20th centuries created durable institutions that remain influential today. The Ramakrishna Mission runs a global network of service centers, the Aligarh and Deoband movements continue to shape Muslim intellectual life, and the anti-caste ideals of the Satya Shodhak Samaj animate contemporary social justice movements. Bhakti temples remain vibrant spiritual centers, and ascetic akharas maintain a powerful presence at events like the Kumbh Mela.

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