Ancient-education/Women in Ancient India/Women’s Struggles and Resilience

Women’s Struggles and Resilience – Breaking Social Barriers

The history of Indian civilisation is not merely a narrative of dynasties and empires but also a testament to the persistent struggles and remarkable resilience of women who navigated a society deeply structured by patriarchal norms. Across centuries, women resisted social confinement, sometimes through direct defiance and at other times through subtler forms of assertion such as spiritual devotion, education, and artistic expression. From royal courts to rural communities, their journeys reflected an enduring quest for autonomy and dignity. Even when political instability, orthodoxy, and restrictive customs curtailed their status, particularly during the later Mughal period, women continued to reshape cultural and intellectual spaces, challenging the boundaries imposed on them. Their courage, creativity, and reformist spirit not only broke social barriers but also laid the foundation for the gradual transformation of gender relations in Indian society.

Efforts Against Restrictive Norms: Women Challenging Patriarchy in Later Ages

In the later medieval and early modern periods, Indian society witnessed the tightening of patriarchal controls that confined women within domestic and moral boundaries. Practices such as child marriage, enforced widowhood, the purdah system, female infanticide, and the denial of inheritance and education became widespread, particularly under feudal and courtly structures of power (Islam Ahmed, 2024; Khare, 2014). These restrictions were often justified as measures of honour and purity, especially during the Mughal period, when political instability and social insecurity heightened anxiety surrounding women's roles and chastity.

Yet, despite these oppressive social codes, numerous women challenged patriarchal expectations through education, reform, and moral assertion. For instance, in Mughal India, Gulbadan Begum, the sister of Emperor Humayun, authored the Humayun-Nama, a rare memoir written by a woman in the sixteenth century that offered a nuanced perspective on imperial politics and domestic life. Her writing subtly defied the gendered assumption that history and literature were masculine domains.

In South India, women belonging to royal and merchant families also resisted restrictive conventions by asserting their property rights and patronising educational institutions.

Outside royal circles, many women expressed resistance in quieter yet meaningful ways. Rather than open confrontation, they challenged unjust customs within their families, voiced moral objections, and claimed personal autonomy through spiritual practice and devotion. For example, widows who chose a life of renunciation rather than self-immolation (sati), or women who defied purdah to participate in religious discourses, embodied acts of social defiance. The growing voices of women poets, mystics, and teachers reflected their search for self-expression beyond patriarchal approval.

These examples reveal that women’s struggle against restrictive norms was not always revolutionary in form, but it often unfolded through education, authorship, economic management, and spiritual leadership. By navigating within and against the boundaries of patriarchy, women of the later ages sowed the seeds for social reform and moral awakening that would inspire subsequent generations.

Women Warriors and Leaders.

Throughout Indian history, several women rulers and warriors shattered the gender norms that confined women to domesticity. Women have frequently been excluded from the overarching narratives of conquest and authority. But a closer look reveals fierce queens, warriors, and strategists who not only defied the norms of their societies but also left an indelible mark on the world. These bravehearts fought, ruled, and rewrote history. From battlefield commanders to political masterminds, these women’s stories are a testament to resilience, ambition, and leadership. Some of the prominent ones are :

• Rani Durgavati (1524–1564), The Gond queen of Garha-Katanga, displayed exemplary administrative skills and valor in defending her kingdom against Mughal expansion under Akbar.

• Kittur Chennamma (1778–1829). The queen of Kittur in Karnataka led one of the earliest armed resistances against British annexation.
• Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi (1828–1858): She who fought valiantly in the 1857 revolt, became an enduring icon of female nationalism and empowerment. "Main apni Jhansi nahi doongi!"("I will not give up my Jhansi!"). Even now, these words echo through history.

• Jhalkari Bai: The Unsung Hero of 1857: This fearless woman from a humble Kori Dalit family rose through the ranks of Jhansi’s army to become one of the queen’s most trusted advisors.When British forces stormed Jhansi, Jhalkari Bai disguised herself as the queen and led a decoy army to mislead the enemy, buying precious time for Rani Lakshmibai to escape.

• Akkadevi ( 11th century CE) :  Akkadevi was a Kalyani Chalukya princess who governed parts of present-day Karnataka. She ruled with fairness and fought like a lion when enemies dared to invade.
• Velu Nachiyar ( 18th century): Before Rani Lakshmibai, In the 18th century, when British forces killed Velu Nachiyar’s husband, she didn’t retreat into sorrow. She stormed her lost kingdom and won it back,  decades before India's freedom movement officially began. Velu Nachiyar didn’t wait for change. She became the change.

Each of these women transcended the limitations of gender roles, proving that political leadership, courage, and patriotism were not defined by sex but by spirit and determination.

Women’s Contribution to Social and Educational Reforms

Before the decline of the Mughal Empire, women’s assertion in education and social reform was neither accidental nor marginal; it emerged from India’s long-standing traditions that valued śikṣā (learning), dāna (charitable patronage), and vidyā-dāna (the sharing of knowledge). Across the subcontinent, from the courts of Vijayanagara and Bahmani to the Chola temples and Jain monasteries, women actively engaged in education, governance, and intellectual life. This participation reveals that pre-modern Indian society, though hierarchical, offered spaces where women exercised their role in learning, art, and spiritual reform.

Royal and aristocratic women played a central role as patrons of learning and reform.

• Hoysala queen Chennadevi: This queen of South India not only funded temples but also sponsored attached schools (pathshalas), linking spiritual devotion with social welfare. These temple institutions functioned as community centers for education, music, and moral instruction. 
• Queens Tirumaladevi and Rangamma Devi: These queens stood as a testament to women’s cultural literacy and influence. were educated in Sanskrit, Telugu, and Tamil. They sponsored poets, temple renovations, and philosophical dialogues (Narasimhachary, 2009). Their active patronage sustained the literary and educational environment that nurtured both male and female scholars.

Women in Religious and Community Education

Outside the royal courts, women continued to shape religious and community-based education. In temple networks across South India, devadasis ( women dedicated to temple service) were trained in classical dance, music, Sanskrit recitation, and ritual administration. Far from being passive figures, early devadasis were custodians of sacred art and oral tradition, ensuring the preservation of India’s cultural memory (Srinivasan, 2006). Parallel developments occurred within Jain and Buddhist communities, where female ascetics served as teachers and philosophers.

• Ahilyabai Holkar (1725–1795): She revived the educational and architectural spirit of earlier centuries by establishing temples, pathshalas, and dharmashalas in Malwa and Varanasi, making her reign a model of enlightened governance.

Resistance Through Arts and Devotion:

Even within restrictive environments, women continued to find avenues for self-expression and reform through various forms of art and devotion

Women saints and poets

• Mirabai

Mirabai is more than just a mystic saint and a devotional poet; she is also a role model for women and a cultural icon. She has left an indelible mark on the world and her legacy will be forwarded to many more coming generations. She will be remembered whenever Lord Krishna is remembered.

• Lalleshwari Devi

Sant Lalleshwari, also revered as Lal Ded, was a 14th-century Kashmiri mystic poet and spiritual luminary whose teachings transcend religious, linguistic, and cultural boundaries.

These women saints bridged the medieval and early modern eras, embodying resistance through devotion, song, and reform.. Their voices ensured that even as structural patriarchy hardened, the ideal of female wisdom and moral courage remained embedded in cultural consciousness.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, however, a series of social and political changes eroded women’s earlier gains in education and reform. This decline was neither uniform nor immediate but resulted from interconnected forces that transformed the subcontinent’s social fabric.

The history of Indian women is not merely a chronicle of subjugation; it is equally a saga of resilience, reform, and reinvention. Whether through the sword, the pen, or the prayer, women across centuries broke social barriers and redefined the contours of freedom.

References:

1. Aware, S. R. (2025). Feminism through the ages in India: An empowering journey [PDF]. International Journal for Research Trends and Innovation, 10(1). https://www.ijrti.org/papers/IJRTI2501029.pdf+IJRTI
2. Dar, S. A., Reshi, I. A., & Malik, A. R. (2023). The unforgettable women of history in India: Untold stories of bravery, resilience, and empowerment. MORFAI Journal, 3(2). https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e895/d981b4f3efa10f9e87ebe87865414d95f3c5.pdf+Semantic+Scholar+PDFs
3. Krishnamoorthy, T. (2024, August 26). The warrior women who fought – and won – against the East India Company. Scroll.in. https://scroll.in/article/1072044/the-warrior-women-who-fought-and-won-against-the-east-india-company+Scroll.in
4. Rajeshwari, R. (2023). The role of women in historical movements: Empowerment, resistance and social change. Journal of Accounting Research, Utility Finance and Digital Assets, 2(1), 556-562. https://jaruda.org/Volumes2No1Paper80.pdf